AS Revision Notes: Utilitarianism

These notes are summary points from the more detailed notes found on the main A Level Religious Studies page.

Introduction

The key features of Utilitarian theories are:

• The promotion of good consequences

• Actions are judged according to the results they achieve

They are often considered to be the most widely used ethical theory in ‘common-sense’ decision making

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Modern Utilitarianism was first significantly developed as an ethical theory by Jeremy Bentham (‘Principles of Morals and Legislation’ (1789), ‘A Fragment on Government’ (1776)).

Bentham lived at a time of great social and scientific change (The Enlightenment and Newton!). He also worked on legal reform and sought to develop greater democracy in politics.

Key Ideas: 

• Humans are fundamentally motivated by pleasure and pain (Hedonism - the pursuit of pleasure).
• Humans pursue pleasure and avoid pain.
• Pleasure and pain are useful guides to tell us what we should or should not do.

‘Nature has placed [humanity] under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as determine what we shall do.’

On this basis Bentham developed the principle of utility (usefulness = the amount of pleasure caused by an action). The rightfulness or wrongfulness of an action is determined by the principle of utility.

In other words: ‘An action is right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number' (The greatest good = most happiness and least pain).

The Hedonic Calculus:

For the principle of utility to work consequences must be measurable so to assist this Bentham proposed the Hedonic Calculus which was composed of seven ‘tests’ with which to assess the utility of actions:

1. The intensity of the pleasure or pain.

2. The duration of the pleasure or pain.

3. The certainty or uncertainty of the pleasure or pain.

4. The remoteness of any pleasure or pain (or how much I might be affected).

5. The chances of the same effects being repeated (E.g. More pleasure or more pain).

6. The chances of the same effects not being repeated (E.g. No more pleasure or no more pain).

7. The number of people who will be affected by any pleasure or pain arising as a result of the action(s) in question.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Jeremy Bentham’s principle of utility was critiqued and developed by John Stuart Mill in ‘On Liberty’ (1859) and 'Utilitarianism’ (1861). He also wrote, ‘On the Subjugation of Women’ which is a key text for modern feminists.

Mill accepted the notion of ‘the greatest good for greatest number’ but was concerned about ‘the sadistic guards’ who would gain pleasure from torturing a wrongly imprisoned innocent man and so under Bentham's theory would be justified (the greatest pleasure (good) for the greatest number).

Mill would argue that although the action’s of the guards brings them pleasure, it is not good what they are doing. In fact, their actions indicate that they are living in a ‘sick’ community rather than a ‘healthy’ one.

For Mill the individual needed to be considered when making ethical decisions. Bentham’s theory seems to bypass this if the majority gained pleasure from a different act to the individual.

With this in mind Mill focussed on quality of pleasure rather quantity and spoke of ‘higher pleasures’ (intellectual pursuits) and ‘lower pleasures’ (physical appetites): 'It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied’.

Predictably Mill believed the ‘higher’ pleasures were greater than the 'lower'.

Types of Utilitarianism

• Act Utilitarianism: No rules but simply makes the best decision for each situation on the basis of the principle of utility. This may mean that I potentially do ‘immoral’ acts for a ‘greater good’. Jeremy Bentham would be an ‘Act Utilitarian
  

• Rule Utilitarianism: Focuses on general rules which everyone should follow for the greater good of the community. This means that I might have to obey a rule for the greater good of the community even if by doing so it has a negative effect on me. John Stuart Mill would be a ‘Rule’ Utilitarian.
  

• Preference Utilitarianism: You should take into account the preferences of the person concerned in each case until they are outweighed by the preferences of others. This allows people to define what pleasure and pain is for them. Peter Singer uses this to argue for the rights of animals alongside the theory of utility.

Some Critiques

• Utilitarianism makes decisions on the basis of what is good for the majority. How then is it possible to justify an action on the basis of the individual or minority view?

• Sometimes our moral choices may not lead to happiness but may nevertheless be the ‘right’ thing to do.

• By focussing on the consequences of actions Utilitarianism can bypass the means by which this is achieved.

• There is also the question as to whether motives are a consideration in assessing the rightness of an action as well.

• When we consider the consequences of an action should this include non-sentient species? Should this also include non-living things?

• Can we ever fully determine the consequences of one’s decisions and how we measure pleasure? Is pleasure a measurable ‘thing’?

• Are ‘higher pleasures’ greater than ‘lower pleasures’? On what basis do you decide?

Some Developments

By the end of the nineteenth century Utilitarianism had given way to Naturalism and Intuitionism

Naturalism 

• Ethical values can be ‘scientifically’ tested and evaluated. This would be done on the basis of observation (or ‘sense-perception’).

• Moral ‘facts’ are not personal opinions. When one ‘sees’ something that is wrong it is wrong. For example, if I see a murder occurring I do not just see just the act itself but I also see that the act is wrong (i.e. the effects it produces).

• When people observe that something is wrong it is a moral ‘fact’ of the universe.

Intuitionism

• G. E. Moore in Principia Ethica rejected what he called the ‘Naturalistic Fallacy’.

• He believed the idea of ‘good’ was a simple one that could not be based on anything else. Something is good or bad in itself rather than because of the effects it produces.

• Moore essentially argues that there can be no ‘ought’ from ‘is’ (‘ought’ (moral conclusion) cannot be derived from ‘ought-free’ (non-moral) premises

• Morality does not describe the way the world is but how it should be. For example, to define ‘goodness’ as that which brings the greatest pleasure is to commit a logical error (confusing moral judgements (‘ought’) with factual judgements (‘is’)).

‘If I am asked "What is good?", my answer is that good is good and that is the end of the matter. Or if I am asked "How is good to be defined?" my answer is that it cannot be defined and that is all I have to say about it’

• Moore’s essential problem is that even if we state that something is ‘good’ it is impossible to explain why this is so: ‘Whatever definition may be offered, it may always be asked…of the complex so defined whether it itself is good’.

Intuitionism leads to Emotivism.